[166] Higgs himself prefers to call the particle either by an acronym of all those involved, or "the scalar boson", or "the so-called Higgs particle". Professor Goshaw’scareer spans the entire history of the Higgs boson! Proving the existence of the Higgs boson could prove whether the Higgs field existed, and therefore finally prove whether the Standard Model's explanation was correct. On 31 July 2012, the ATLAS collaboration presented additional data analysis on the "observation of a new particle", including data from a third channel, which improved the significance to 5.9 sigma (1 in 588 million chance of obtaining at least as strong evidence by random background effects alone) and mass 126.0 ± 0.4 (stat) ± 0.4 (sys) GeV/c2,[115] and CMS improved the significance to 5-sigma and mass 125.3 ± 0.4 (stat) ± 0.5 (sys) GeV/c2. + Higgs, an atheist, was reported to be displeased and stated in a 2008 interview that he found it "embarrassing" because it was "the kind of misuse... which I think might offend some people". [153] Tachyon condensation drives a physical system that has reached a local limit – and might naively be expected to produce physical tachyons – to an alternate stable state where no physical tachyons exist. The measured value of this parameter is ~246 GeV/c2. Two reasons. [75] In practice, Politzer states, almost everyone learned of the theory due to physicist Benjamin Lee, who combined the work of Veltman and 't Hooft with insights by others, and popularised the completed theory. In Miller's analogy, the Higgs field is compared to political party workers spread evenly throughout a room. m Although the Higgs field exists everywhere, proving its existence was far from easy. The field required for this to happen (which was purely hypothetical at the time) became known as the Higgs field (after Peter Higgs, one of the researchers) and the mechanism by which it led to symmetry breaking, known as the Higgs mechanism. In 1963, this was shown to be theoretically possible, at least for some limited (non-relativistic) cases. λ On 4 July 2012, the discovery of a new particle with a mass between 125 and 127 GeV/c2 was announced; physicists suspected that it was the Higgs boson. The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question? [e] When the weak force bosons acquire mass, this affects the distance they can freely travel, which becomes very small, also matching experimental findings. [145] Reconciling these points appears to require explaining why there is an almost-perfect cancellation resulting in the visible mass of ~ 125 GeV, and it is not clear how to do this. [176][177][178][179][180] The nickname comes from the title of the 1993 book on the Higgs boson and particle physics, The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question? There was no guarantee that the Tevatron would be able to find the Higgs, but it was the only supercollider that was operational since the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) was still under construction and the planned Superconducting Super Collider had been cancelled in 1993 and never completed. A subatomic particle with the expected properties was discovered in 2012 by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. Lederman's editor decided that the title was too controversial and convinced him to change the title to The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question? v This is seen as theoretically unsatisfactory, particularly as quantum corrections (related to interactions with virtual particles) should apparently cause the Higgs particle to have a mass immensely higher than that observed, but at the same time the Standard Model requires a mass of the order of 100 to 1000 GeV to ensure unitarity (in this case, to unitarise longitudinal vector boson scattering). {\displaystyle B_{\mu }} [116] To allow more opportunity for data collection, the LHC's proposed 2012 shutdown and 2013–14 upgrade were postponed by seven weeks into 2013. The Higgs boson is the visible manifestation of the Higgs field, rather like a wave at the surface of the sea. It was the first proposal capable of showing how the weak force gauge bosons could have mass despite their governing symmetry, within a gauge invariant theory. [150][151] Under no circumstances do any excitations ever propagate faster than light in such theories – the presence or absence of a tachyonic mass has no effect whatsoever on the maximum velocity of signals (there is no violation of causality). [97] While this information was not known publicly at the time, the narrowing of the possible Higgs range to around 115–130 GeV and the repeated observation of small but consistent event excesses across multiple channels at both ATLAS and CMS in the 124-126 GeV region (described as "tantalising hints" of around 2-3 sigma) were public knowledge with "a lot of interest". μ There will be some people (in Miller's example an anonymous person) who pass through the crowd with ease, paralleling the interaction between the field and particles that do not interact with it, such as massless photons. There was not yet any direct evidence that the Higgs field existed, but even without proof of the field, the accuracy of its predictions led scientists to believe the theory might be true. [147] However, if quantum triviality is avoided, triviality constraints may set bounds on the Higgs Boson mass. The Standard Model predicts that Higgs bosons could be formed in a number of ways,[84][162][163] although the probability of producing a Higgs boson in any collision is always expected to be very small – for example, only one Higgs boson per 10 billion collisions in the Large Hadron Collider. 2 "[167], The Higgs boson is often referred to as the "God particle" in popular media outside the scientific community. [citation needed]. The remaining electrically neutral component either manifests as a Higgs particle, or may couple separately to other particles known as fermions (via Yukawa couplings), causing these to acquire mass as well.[26]. Occasionally, although rarely, a Higgs boson will be created fleetingly as part of the collision byproducts. In particular, exploration since 2015 has provided strong evidence of the predicted direct decay into fermions such as pairs of bottom quarks (3.6 σ) – described as an "important milestone" in understanding its short lifetime and other rare decays – and also to confirm decay into pairs of tau leptons (5.9 σ). In the paper by Higgs the boson is massive, and in a closing sentence Higgs writes that "an essential feature" of the theory "is the prediction of incomplete multiplets of scalar and vector bosons". There has been considerable scientific research on possible links between the Higgs field and the inflaton – a hypothetical field suggested as the explanation for the expansion of space during the first fraction of a second of the universe (known as the "inflationary epoch"). CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (, predicted several other particles discovered during the following years, expensive and complex experimental facilities, Learn how and when to remove this template message, unified model for the weak and electromagnetic interactions, 2010 Sakurai Prize awarded for 1964 Higgs Boson theory work, Prospective Nobel Prize for Higgs boson work disputed, J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics, a future theory of fundamental particles and interactions. Just after the big bang, the Higgs field was zero, but as the universe cooled and the temperature fell below a critical value, the field grew spontaneously so that any particle interacting with it acquired a mass. It is always possible to pick a gauge such that in the ground state This free online course introduces the theoretical tools needed to appreciate the discovery, and presents the elementary particles that have been discovered at the tiniest scales ever explored. To find the Higgs boson, a powerful particle accelerator was needed, because Higgs bosons might not be seen in lower-energy experiments. [205], Analogies based on drag effects, including analogies of "syrup" or "molasses" are also well known, but can be somewhat misleading since they may be understood (incorrectly) as saying that the Higgs field simply resists some particles' motion but not others' – a simple resistive effect could also conflict with Newton's third law.[207]. {\displaystyle W_{\mu }} λ 0 , and ", "Is there a link between the Higgs boson and dark energy? [15] This meant that either gauge invariance was an incorrect approach, or something else – unknown – was giving these particles their mass. The Large Hadron Collider's main task was to probe the energy scales at which the Higgs should exist. Particle physicists study matter made from fundamental particles whose interactions are mediated by exchange particles – gauge bosons – acting as force carriers. This is no catastrophe, since the photon field is not an observable, and one can readily show that the S-matrix elements, which are observable have covariant structures. 0 In 'naive' gauge theories, gauge bosons and other fundamental particles are all massless – also a symmetrical situation. Experimental analysis of these channels reached a significance of more than five standard deviations (sigma) in both experiments. It is unclear how these should be reconciled. Quantum fields can have states of differing stability, including 'stable', 'unstable' and ', The example is based on the production rate at the LHC operating at 7 TeV. What Philip Anderson realized and worked out in the summer of 1962 was that, when you have both gauge symmetry and spontaneous symmetry breaking, the massless Nambu–Goldstone mode can combine with the massless gauge field modes to produce a physical massive vector field. In July 2018, the ATLAS and CMS experiments reported observing the Higgs boson decay into a pair of bottom quarks, which makes up approximately 60% of all of its decays.[137][138][139]. The more a particle interacts with this field, the heavier it is. [24], Examples of tests used to validate that the discovered particle is the Higgs boson:[119][130]. To produce Higgs bosons, two beams of particles are accelerated to very high energies and allowed to collide within a particle detector. [77], Following reported observation of the Higgs-like particle in July 2012, several Indian media outlets reported on the supposed neglect of credit to Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose after whose work in the 1920s the class of particles "bosons" is named[213][214] (although physicists have described Bose's connection to the discovery as tenuous).[215]. Yet, for all the hype, the discovery of the Higgs boson easily merits recognition as the breakthrough of the year. 1 Particle colliders, detectors, and computers capable of looking for Higgs bosons took more than 30 years (c. 1980–2010) to develop. Various analogies have been used to describe the Higgs field and boson, including analogies with well-known symmetry-breaking effects such as the rainbow and prism, electric fields, and ripples on the surface of water. A similar explanation was offered by The Guardian:[204]. Built in a 27 km tunnel under the ground near Geneva originally inhabited by LEP, it was designed to collide two beams of protons, initially at energies of 3.5 TeV per beam (7 TeV total), or almost 3.6 times that of the Tevatron, and upgradeable to 2 × 7 TeV (14 TeV total) in future. ν We do so using the world's largest and most complex scientific instruments. The expectation value of HowStuffWorks: What exactly is the Higgs Boson? Instead the detectors register all the decay products (the decay signature) and from the data the decay process is reconstructed. In practice, many processes may produce similar decay signatures. Right: The four-lepton "golden channel": Boson emits two Z bosons, which each decay into two leptons (electrons, muons). "Chasing the Higgs Boson: How 2 teams of rivals at CERN searched for physics' most elusive particle", "Englert–Brout–Higgs–Guralnik–Hagen–Kibble mechanism (history)", "Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble mechanism (history)". This field, called the "Higgs Field", exists throughout space, and it breaks some symmetry laws of the electroweak interaction, triggering the Higgs mechanism. [24], By March 2013, the existence of the Higgs boson was confirmed, and therefore, the concept of some type of Higgs field throughout space is strongly supported.[21][23][6]. ), which has the unusual property of a non-zero amplitude in its ground state; i.e., a non-zero vacuum expectation value. [116] By this logic the most common decay should be into a top–antitop quark pair. Even so, it could still have been a Higgs boson or some other unknown boson, since future tests could show behaviours that do not match a Higgs boson, so as of December 2012 CERN still only stated that the new particle was "consistent with" the Higgs boson,[21][23] and scientists did not yet positively say it was the Higgs boson. . [9] It is named after physicist Peter Higgs who in 1964 along with five other scientists proposed the Higgs mechanism to explain why some particles have mass. The Higgs discovery, as well as the many measured collisions occurring at the LHC, provide physicists a sensitive tool to search their data for any evidence that the Standard Model seems to fail, and could provide considerable evidence guiding researchers into future theoretical developments. The Higgs field is pivotal in generating the masses of quarks and charged leptons (through Yukawa coupling) and the W and Z gauge bosons (through the Higgs mechanism). The Standard Model predicts the decay patterns of a 125 GeV Higgs boson. What we now call the Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism gives a mass to the W and Z when they interact with an invisible field, now called the “Higgs field”, which pervades the universe. g > [117], In November 2012, in a conference in Kyoto researchers said evidence gathered since July was falling into line with the basic Standard Model more than its alternatives, with a range of results for several interactions matching that theory's predictions. The mass of the Higgs boson itself is given by. It is worth noting that the Higgs field does not "create" mass out of nothing (which would violate the law of conservation of energy), nor is the Higgs field responsible for the mass of all particles. [89], The search continued at Fermilab in the United States, where the Tevatron – the collider that discovered the top quark in 1995 – had been upgraded for this purpose. [c] In 1962 physicist Philip Anderson, working in the field of condensed matter physics, observed that symmetry breaking played a role in superconductivity, and may have relevance to the problem of gauge invariance in particle physics. Mathematically, the Higgs field has imaginary mass and is therefore a tachyonic field. In the symmetry breaking ground state, only the terms containing More collision data allows better confirmation of the physical properties of any new particle observed, and allows physicists to decide whether it is indeed a Higgs boson as described by the Standard Model or some other hypothetical new particle. When symmetry breaks under these conditions, the Goldstone bosons that arise interact with the Higgs field (and with other particles capable of interacting with the Higgs field) instead of becoming new massless particles. Highlights from the 2019 Moriond conference (... LHC experiments share highlights for 2018. [3] The second most common fermion decay at that mass is a tau–antitau pair, which happens only about 6.3% of the time.[3]. As more precise measurements of its properties are made, more advanced extensions may be suggested or excluded. i The Higgs boson is a particle that corresponds to this sticky field. The first is that Higgs undertook a step which was either unique, clearer or more explicit in his paper in formally predicting and examining the particle. [91][92][93], Data collection at the LHC finally commenced in March 2010. I read with interest this brief account of the Higgs boson discovery and public announcement at CERN on 4 July 2012. A 1974 paper and comprehensive review in Reviews of Modern Physics commented that "while no one doubted the [mathematical] correctness of these arguments, no one quite believed that nature was diabolically clever enough to take advantage of them",[78] adding that the theory had so far produced accurate answers that accorded with experiment, but it was unknown whether the theory was fundamentally correct. | For a Higgs boson with a mass of 125 GeV/c2 the SM predicts a mean life time of about 1.6×10−22 s.[b]. In the 1960s Peter Higgs was the first person to suggest that this particle might exist. The Higgs boson contributes to the observedWandZgauge boson masses through loop diagrams, leading to a logarithmic dependence of the ratiooftheWandZmassesontheHiggsbosonmass.Thetopquarkcontributes to the observedWbosonmassthroughloopeﬀects that depend quadraticallyon the top mass. At the end of its service in 2000, LEP had found no conclusive evidence for the Higgs. Although these ideas did not gain much initial support or attention, by 1972 they had been developed into a comprehensive theory and proved capable of giving "sensible" results that accurately described particles known at the time, and which, with exceptional accuracy, predicted several other particles discovered during the following years. Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics, Standard Model (mathematical formulation), Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model, static forces and virtual-particle exchange, "LHC experiments delve deeper into precision", "New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson", "The Higgs boson: Why scientists hate that you call it the 'God particle, "The Known Particles – If The Higgs Field Were Zero", "It's a boson! Finally, advanced computing facilities were needed to process the vast amount of data (25 petabytes per year as of 2012) produced by the collisions. 2001, a spacetime odyssey: proceedings of the Inaugural Conference of the Michigan Center for Theoretical Physics, "Spontaneous Breakdown of Strong Interaction Symmetry and the Absence of Massless Particles". The discovery of the Higgs boson was made in the ggF mode. [43], If measurements of the Higgs boson suggest that our universe lies within a false vacuum of this kind, then it would imply – more than likely in many billions of years[44][i] – that the universe's forces, particles, and structures could cease to exist as we know them (and be replaced by different ones), if a true vacuum happened to nucleate. 3 ϕ {\displaystyle \sigma ^{a}} While this is true for the photon, we know that the W and Z have mass, nearly 100 times that of a proton. , so that the ground state breaks the SU(2) symmetry (see figure). 1 The SM predicts these branching ratios as a function of the Higgs mass (see plot). Al served on the IAC of the Symposium on the First Year of LHC Physics at Michigan. [152] Instead of faster-than-light particles, the imaginary mass creates an instability: Any configuration in which one or more field excitations are tachyonic must spontaneously decay, and the resulting configuration contains no physical tachyons. The Higgs field's effect on particles was famously described by physicist David Miller as akin to a room full of political party workers spread evenly throughout a room: The crowd gravitates to and slows down famous people but does not slow down others. ( Weinberg was the first to observe that this would also provide mass terms for the fermions. It is the simplest known process capable of giving mass to the gauge bosons while remaining compatible with gauge theories.   This process, which is the reverse of the gluon fusion process mentioned above, happens approximately 8.6% of the time for a Higgs boson with a mass of 125 GeV/c2. W {\displaystyle \mu _{\text{H}}^{2}>0} L,R Those particles that feel the Higgs field act as if they have mass. [28] In Higgs-based theories, the property of "mass" is a manifestation of potential energy transferred to fundamental particles when they interact ("couple") with the Higgs field, which had contained that mass in the form of energy. [40][41][42] A 125–127 GeV Higgs mass seems to be extremely close to the boundary for stability, but a definitive answer requires much more precise measurements of the pole mass of the top quark. In the Type-I 2HDM model one Higgs doublet couples to up and down quarks, while the second doublet does not couple to quarks. “The discovery of the Higgs boson was a historic event, but we are still only at … It was therefore several decades before the first evidence of the Higgs boson was found. [170] However, in Higgs' view, Brout and Englert did not explicitly mention the boson since its existence is plainly obvious in their work,[57]:6 while according to Guralnik the GHK paper was a complete analysis of the entire symmetry breaking mechanism whose mathematical rigour is absent from the other two papers, and a massive particle may exist in some solutions. Moreover, the production rates and branching ratios for the observed channels broadly matched the predictions by the Standard Model within the experimental uncertainties. remain, giving rise to mass terms for the fermions. = [52] According to Guralnik, physicists had "no understanding" how these problems could be overcome. There has been considerable public discussion of analogies and explanations for the Higgs particle and how the field creates mass,[199][200] including coverage of explanatory attempts in their own right and a competition in 1993 for the best popular explanation by then-UK Minister for Science Sir William Waldegrave[201] and articles in newspapers worldwide. Spontaneous symmetry breaking, gauge theories, the Higgs mechanism and all that (Bernstein, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higgs_boson&oldid=1000919843, Articles with dead external links from August 2018, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia pending changes protected pages, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Articles needing additional references from January 2015, All articles needing additional references, Articles that may contain original research from January 2015, All articles that may contain original research, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2012, Articles containing potentially dated statements from July 2017, All articles containing potentially dated statements, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012, Wikipedia articles in need of updating from July 2018, All Wikipedia articles in need of updating, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. i [97] By around November 2011, the anomalous data at 125 GeV was becoming "too large to ignore" (although still far from conclusive), and the team leaders at both ATLAS and CMS each privately suspected they might have found the Higgs. In this scenario, the universe as we know it could effectively be destroyed by collapsing into a more stable vacuum state. On 14 March 2013, scientists at CERN tentatively confirmed that they had found a … The two forces can be described within the same theory, which forms the basis of the Standard Model. u,d,e W Fortunately, the Standard Model precisely predicts the likelihood of each of these, and each known process, occurring. [61] (Frank Close comments that 1960s gauge theorists were focused on the problem of massless vector bosons, and the implied existence of a massive scalar boson was not seen as important; only Higgs directly addressed it. Although the notion of imaginary mass might seem troubling, it is only the field, and not the mass itself, that is quantised. Inoltre il bosone di Higgs garantisce la consistenza della teoria, che senza di esso porterebbe a un calcolo di probabilità maggiore di uno per alcuni processi fisici. [157] The range of a force is inversely proportional to the mass of the particles transmitting it. The behaviours and properties of the particle, so far as examined since July 2012, also seemed quite close to the behaviours expected of a Higgs boson. = It then became crucial to science, to know whether it was, The bubble's effects would be expected to propagate across the universe at the speed of light from wherever it occurred. [f] Furthermore, it was later realised that the same field would also explain, in a different way, why other fundamental constituents of matter (including electrons and quarks) have mass. In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr revealed the inner world of the atom: a positively charged nucleus orbited by negatively charged electrons. [146] More broadly, the hierarchy problem amounts to the worry that a future theory of fundamental particles and interactions should not have excessive fine-tunings or unduly delicate cancellations, and should allow masses of particles such as the Higgs boson to be calculable. Many theorists expect new physics beyond the Standard Model to emerge at the TeV-scale, based on unsatisfactory properties of the Standard Model. [100][101][102], On 22 June 2012 CERN announced an upcoming seminar covering tentative findings for 2012,[103][104] and shortly afterwards (from around 1 July 2012 according to an analysis of the spreading rumour in social media[105]) rumours began to spread in the media that this would include a major announcement, but it was unclear whether this would be a stronger signal or a formal discovery. This particle was called the Higgs boson. The quantum of the remaining neutral component corresponds to (and is theoretically realised as) the massive Higgs boson. = The discovery of the Higgs boson relied on measurements of its decay to vector bosons. Because Higgs boson production in a particle collision is likely to be very rare (1 in 10 billion at the LHC),[m] and many other possible collision events can have similar decay signatures, the data of hundreds of trillions of collisions needs to be analysed and must "show the same picture" before a conclusion about the existence of the Higgs boson can be reached. "[197] Supersymmetry ("SUSY") also predicts relations between the Higgs-boson masses and the masses of the gauge bosons, and could accommodate a 125 GeV/c2 neutral Higgs boson. [118][119], These findings meant that as of January 2013, scientists were very sure they had found an unknown particle of mass ~ 125 GeV/c2, and had not been misled by experimental error or a chance result. For example, in technicolor the role of the Higgs field is played by strongly bound pairs of fermions called techniquarks. Such theories are highly tentative and face significant problems related to unitarity, but may be viable if combined with additional features such as large non-minimal coupling, a Brans–Dicke scalar, or other "new" physics, and they have received treatments suggesting that Higgs inflation models are still of interest theoretically. μ [52], Particle physicist and mathematician Peter Woit summarised the state of research at the time:.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}, Yang and Mills work on non-abelian gauge theory had one huge problem: in perturbation theory it has massless particles which don’t correspond to anything we see.   This “unification” implies that electricity, magnetism, light and some types of radioactivity are all manifestations of a single underlying force known as the electroweak force. [154], Since the Higgs field is scalar, the Higgs boson has no spin. ⟨ The search is performed in five decay modes: gamma gamma, ZZ, WW, … Theory suggested if the Higgs boson existed, collisions at these energy levels should be able to reveal it. Many accounts (including Higgs' own[57]:7) credit the "Higgs" name to physicist Benjamin Lee (in Korean: Lee Whi-soh). [194], Lederman begins with a review of the long human search for knowledge, and explains that his tongue-in-cheek title draws an analogy between the impact of the Higgs field on the fundamental symmetries at the Big Bang, and the apparent chaos of structures, particles, forces and interactions that resulted and shaped our present universe, with the biblical story of Babel in which the primordial single language of early Genesis was fragmented into many disparate languages and cultures.[195]. {\displaystyle W_{\mu \,a}} "In sum, the Higgs boson … In the history of the universe, electroweak symmetry breaking is believed to have happened shortly after the hot big bang, when the universe was at a temperature 159.5±1.5 GeV. However, such a decay would only be possible if the Higgs were heavier than ~346 GeV/c2, twice the mass of the top quark. 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